fChristin has 12 post(s)

Lila Abu-Lughod is the author of Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving. In her essay, Lila discusses the Western world’s obsession with viewing Muslim women as people that need to be saved based on their cultural practices. One practice that many westerners believe “restricts” the basic human rights of Muslim women is the veil, also known as the burqa (Abu-Lughod, 2002). I believe that Abu-Lughod feels that a major problem with the Western world is that they fail to acknowledge the differences in cultures. The burqa is a big part of the Muslim culture as it pertains to women. What many westerners see as oppression for these women is not oppression to them. Many Muslim women wear the burqa to show what group they are a part of, distance themselves from men they choose not to reveal themselves too, and as a way to maintain a relationship with their god (Abu-Lughod, 2002). Lila tries to reinforce that just because women in the western world do not wear a burqa does not mean that women who do wear it in other parts of the world are being oppressed (Abu-Lughod, 2002).

I deeply enjoyed Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving because Lila really brings awareness to the different motivations behind various campaigns. First, by claiming that Muslim women need saving because they wear a burqa is insinuating that the western way in which women do not wear burqas is the right practice. This insinuation in a way condemns the practice of wearing burqas as not being “normal” and that it is an agent used to oppress women. Second, she states that the world has a tendency of using women as victims like Muslim women as a way to persuade the public into agreeing to things like war (Abu-Lughod, 2002). I believe that as it pertains to the burqa, Muslim women do not need saving. The burqa is a part of their culture and it is a part of their identity. Just because they choose to cover themselves for various reasons does not mean that their freedom is restricted. I also believe that the world, in particular the western world needs to embrace the differences of cultures and stop trying to impose their beliefs on others similar to what they are trying to do to the Muslim women and their burqa.

Abu-Lughod, L. (2002). Do Muslim Really Need Saving? Anthropological
(Abu-Lughod, 2002)Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others. Harvard University Press.

In Amelia L. Cabezas book Between Love and Money, she deeply discusses the lives of women in Cuba and the Dominican Republic who are participants in Sex Tourism. In her chapter, Sex, Tourism, and Citizenship in Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the idea of sexual citizenship is introduced. Sexual Citizenship is a movement that Cabezas believes will help to eliminate the sexual discrimination of women. Sexual Citizenship will aim to embrace the varying sexual practices and sexualities present amongst individuals. I like and agree with the idea of sexual citizenship. People should be free to explore any sexuality they desire and they should also possess the right to do what they want with their bodies. The sooner people adopt this ideology, the sooner the world would head in the right direction of being less discriminatory and oppressive.

Women living in both Cuba and the Dominican Republic who fall outside of the practice of heteronormativity are viewed as outcasts. The women who participate in the sex tourism lifestyles are seen as outcasts because many believe their way of life is immoral and that it misrepresents both Cuban and Dominican women. Their lifestyle makes them targets for harassment not only by other citizens but by law enforcement who view their way of life as corruption. However, many women who participate in this type of work choose and continue to do it because it provides them with extra money needed to help sustain their households and take care of family members that are dependent on them. Not only does this work help them financially but it also provides the women with chances to see the world and migrate to different places with their tourist companions. Sexual Citizenship would essentially grant these women a right to carry out their work without being discriminated and allow them to be viewed as women doing what they please with their bodies.

Throughout the history of the world there have been various societies present across the globe. These societies have consisted of numerous working parts. After reading Aberrations in Black by Roderick A. Ferguson, I will be discussing the relationships between property, capital, and prostitution. Property is an object, piece of land, or in barbaric cases people that a person owns. Capital is a means of wealth used by citizens in many societies to purchase both necessities and desires. Prostitution is the action of an individual using their sexual practices to obtain wealth.

Roderick A. Ferguson does a great job of explaining how property, capital, and prostitution relate to each other. We the citizens are property. When we work, we become property to the various institutions that we work for. Not only are we property to our employers but we are property to the very thing we are trying to obtain from our work which is capital (Ferguson, 2003). We citizens become a form of property so that we can obtain capital. Many people in the world are driven by their desire to accumulate a large amount of wealth and this desire sometimes influences people to engage in “immoral” acts. We the citizens are then prostitutes. We become prostitutes by selling ourselves and our work to obtain capital. Citizens are like prostitutes because we must sell our services to receive capital and to survive (Ferguson, 2003).

In Ferguson’s piece Aberrations in Black he speaks extensively about “queer of color” and its relevance to the relationship between property, capital, and prostitution. I believe that “queer of color” is slightly like prostitution because they are both believed to be an enemy to heteropatriarchy. Both prostitution and homosexuality are viewed as vices that aim to destroy the integrity of heterosexual males. Also, prostitution was deemed as a cause of gender and sexual confusions and I believe that “queer of color” brings up these same confusions (Ferguson, 2003). Lastly, property, capital, and prostitution are believed to be factors that have negatively impacted the practice of heteronormativity in America. Similarly, “queer of color” can be seen to do the same things because it goes against the natural roles that the state has institutionalized among its citizens. Just like the three factors listed above “queer of color” can be seen as a threat to a society and as a vice that aims to taint the idea of a “normal” American.

Ferguson, R. A. (2003). Aberrations in Black. University of Minnesota Press.

In Cathy J. Cohens piece Punks, Bulldaggers, and Welfare Queens she discusses the ways in which the radical potential of queer activism has been inhibited. The major point that Cohen believes inhibits queer activism is there inability to focus on trying to transform the very systems that dominate them (Cohen, 1997). Many queer activists have devoted much of their time focusing on how heterosexuality is normalized and homosexuality is ostracized but they forget that the domination of the state affects both. I believe that Cohen believes that once activists realize that many people with different identities experience similar oppression from the state the sooner they will begin to change politics. It should not be homosexuals against heterosexuals but people who experience various forms of discrimination working together to correct all the flaws in politics that oppress them all.

The main goal of the queer activists is to put an end to discrimination and oppression faced by many homosexuals. However, focusing just on eradicating the oppression of homosexuals does not stop the multiple ways in which the state dominates its citizens. Even within homosexual groups there is discrimination that deals with race, class, etc (Cohen, 1997). I believe that the closemindedness of the activists is their major downfall. Regardless if you win the right for homosexuality to be “normalized” in the eyes of the state, what makes them think that discrimination amongst them will not exist. I believe that this is also a thought shared by Cathy J. Cohen. A certain gender, class, and race of homosexuals may very well have more privilege’s than other homosexuals within their group which will continue to keep the door for oppression open. Both Cohen and I believe that one issue should not only be targeted for adjustment but all forms should be targeted and activists should aim to change the laws and ideas the state aims to reinforce. Once those oppressive ways are changed the laws can then be structured to steer clear of dominating others and ostracizing certain people.

Cohen, C. J. (1997). Punks, Bulldaggers, and Welfare Queens. Overseas
Association.

Who are the “outsiders”? The outsiders are people specifically black women as stated in the work of Patricia Hill Collins who have faced various forms of oppression. The oppression they are subjected too has given them the ability to see the world through a different perspective. It has also granted them with knowledge that those who have never been subjected to oppression lack. The oppressive experiences held by many black women has greatly contributed to various fields of sociology, psychology, culture, and society. My response will focus on the oppression of black women.

The maltreatment of the “outsiders” has resulted in many black women banding together. Throughout the history of the world many African Americans have been mistreated by other groups, exploited, and ostracized. The unfair treatment they received from others brought many blacks closer together because not only were they all that they had but if they worked together it helped their chances of survival. Social mistreatment made strangers who only shared the same skin tone family and allies (Collins, 1986). Through a sociological perspective it is fascinating to see how in the face of hardship people band together and seek each other for comfort. Another reason many black women joined together was for psychological purposes (Collins, 1986). Many whites attempted to dehumanize blacks but their interactions with each other helped to reinforce that they were indeed humans. Just having someone be there for you helps to keep you mentally sane. The effects of sisterhood during this time contributed so much to psychology (Collins, 1986).

As their oppression continued the connection between many African Americans grew so strong that they became a community. A certain knowledge spread amongst them that they could stand against this oppression and if they stood against it with each other they would be strong. Again, this greatly contributed to sociology because many blacks saw the difficulties they faced in society and they developed themselves to combat these struggles. This is an example of how humans respond to society and this is what sociology is about. The sense of community between black women also helped them in their fight for their rights. They were excluded from many feminist movements held by white women (Collins, 1986). However, this did not stop them because they banded together in great numbers and created a loud voice that showed their oppressors that they are human and deserve human rights. Actions like this contribute to their culture.

The hardships African Americans have been subjected to has influenced and helped to create black culture. They are knowledgeable and saw how their oppression was unfair so they acted in different ways. Presently, you still hear in their music the activism against their abuse. Music is a way that they can speak to an array of people belonging to different groups and help to open their eyes to the injustices they are blind to. Another way is how they hit the streets to campaign against discrimination. They help us to better understand how society can influence the actions of people and how what we face in society can help create a culture. The “outsiders” have shown sociologists that when facing difficult times people seek the comfort of those they experience it with even if they did not know them before (Collins, 1986). They show sociologist that when faced with a common issue in society people band together to help make change in a society. The “outsiders” show psychologist that human interactions are extremely important and can even help someone survive. Lastly, the outsiders show us that a culture can be created through the shared experiences of people, the common goal they possess to make change, and through their strength.

Collins, P. H. (1986). Learning from the Outsider Within: The Sociological

Significance of Black Feminist Thought. University of California Press.

Heterosexism is believed to be a precise way of analyzing the relationships of gender differences because in heterosexism a gender hierarchy is prevalent. For many years, the idea of heterosexuality has been deemed “normal” and as the true and “right” sexuality for one to follow. However, this sexuality tends to favor the male gender over the female gender. Heterosexism aims to create a gap between males and females, emphasizing not only their physical differences but, their worth. It also aims to deny the existence of other genders and sexual preferences that possess ideologies that are different from the ideas that it upholds. The blatant inequality within heterosexism makes it easy for people to analyze the difference in gender.

Another topic prevalent in heterosexism is human rights. This is a sexuality that favors males over females and heterosexual relationships over other forms of unions. It is structured so that the male upholds their prominent stature at the expense of others which are typically women. The human rights of women are minimized and the oppression they face daily is overlooked because their struggles benefit men. Furthermore, the masculinization of the state further deepens the oppression of women by aiming to control them for the betterment of both men and the state; with the hope of procuring heterosexuality for present and future generations. Human rights are again denied to those who do not conform to the ideology of heterosexism. Those who “rebel” do not receive the same human rights and protection that those who have conformed to heterosexuality obtain. Therefore, those who do not conform are not only forced to fend for themselves but they are not viewed as people who deserve basic human rights. This alternative form of oppression, is another way that heterosexism makes it easy for people to analyze the relationships of gender difference and human rights.

Both Spike Peterson and Laura Parisi believed that heterosexism was precise way to explore the relationships between differences in gender and human rights. In heterosexuality, the gender that you are determines the human rights that you will be given. Also, an individual’s decision on whether they want to follow heterosexuality also influences the rights they will receive. The obvious differences and oppression also make it easier for others to view how and why these issues arise. I believe that the way a person chooses to live their life or the gender a person was born with should not dictate their worth and be the deciding factor in the human rights they will obtain. Once people and the state begin to embrace the differences amongst its population it will move in the direction of equality and acceptance.

Heterosexuality is a relationship between a man and a woman. Heterosexuality has been recognized all over the world as one of the most common and “normal” practices. However, many other sexualities have existed throughout the course of history like homosexuality. Writer Adrienne Rich wrote a book named Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence which discusses how heterosexuality is a sexuality forced upon citizens, mostly women. My essay will discuss the ways in which heterosexuality is institutionalized in the world as stated by Adrienne Rich.

First, heterosexuality is institutionalized through the economy. Nations have structured their societies so that many women will be dependent on men to survive financially in the world. Women who are not in a relationship with a man or do not have one in their household will have difficulty supporting themselves. The government controls relationships by paying women far less than men for the same work. This inequality makes it extremely difficult for women to survive. It is outrageous to know that a working lesbian couple will normally make less money than a working heterosexual couple. Through this economic inequality the government can force people into unwanted relationships just so that they can survive. I feel this is unfair. Regardless of gender I believe that people working the same job should be compensated for their work equally.

Heterosexuality is also institutionalized through the elimination of lesbian history. The destruction of works of literature and the history of lesbianism is a way of denying and hiding its existence from female citizens. This is an attempt to make people believe that there is only one sexuality which is believed to be heterosexuality and that is false. By concealing this information, it prohibits women from learning that they can be with someone from their same gender and not a man. Women who are questioning their sexuality or are developing feelings for someone of their gender have nothing to read or turn to. These women were not given the chance to see that there are others who at one time felt how they do which leads them to believe that their feelings are wrong. Shielding female citizens from this history denies them the right to have a choice of their sexuality.

Lastly, the institutionalization of heterosexuality happens through the media. The media in the past and present times forces upon people certain ideals of with whom they should live their life and how they should live their life. By constantly reinforcing heterosexual relationships in certain programs it shows people that it is “right” and “normal” for men and women to be together and that anything other than that isn’t “normal”. By failing to show same sex relationships this is another way of denying lesbianism and trying to conform people to fit societies ideals. The media also airs many programs that depict women as sexual objects to men. I believe that this depiction is terrible because it insinuates that a woman’s responsibility is to not only be with a man but to strive to satisfy him sexually.

Heterosexuality is a relationship between a man and a woman. This sexuality has constantly been reinforced upon people for many years. Heterosexuality is institutionalized through the economy, the elimination of lesbian history, and the media. Many societies have structured their economy so that heterosexual relationships are the most beneficial unions. The unequal pay between men and women forces many women to be dependent on men for their survival. The elimination of lesbian history keeps its female citizens from learning about possible unions other than heterosexuality. Lastly, the media is a way for societies to influence the lives of its citizens by reinforcing certain practices like heterosexuality upon them. In my opinion, I strongly believe that societies should not possess the ability to influence its citizen’s sexuality and destroy historical evidence.

One assumption in Western culture that many people possess is that sex is corruption for the youth (Rubin, 1984). Aspects of sex are normal and they are experienced by mostly everyone in the world. This fear of sex constructs a new and negative attitude towards it. At a young age children should feel comfortable, know about their body, and in some cases, explore it on their own. However, when the government labeled sex as corruption for the youth many parents did not ask questions and assumed that anything they proposed would “save” their children. Once a bold statement such as sex is corruption for the youth is made, many people especially in politics do not want to discuss it further. It is interpreted as a threat that must be eliminated. Anyone who opposes their methods has been corrupted. The criminalization of sex hurts the youth. Criminalizing sex causes the youth to think of their body as a harmful weapon and it does not allow them to explore all aspects of their sexuality.

Another assumption shared by many as stated in Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality by Gayle Rubin is that any sexual orientation or alternative sexual practice that is not deemed “natural” is wrong (Rubin, 1984). Many citizens followed religion. Citizens adopted ideologies on who should engage in sexual intercourse, for what purposes, and how they should engage in it. The ideologies proposed by the bible caused the government to issue laws that prohibited same sex relationships and greatly limited a variety of sexual practices like oral stimulation and sadism & masochism (S/M). This assumption limited the political discussion of sex and harmed the groups who were criminalized by it. Radical theory was prevalent here. Laws were created to ban people from possessing freedom over their sexuality and sexual desires. In regards to this assumption, politics aimed to have its citizens deal with sex in a uniform way because it was “normal” and this is the way it was supposed to be done. Political discussion on the topic was limited because many believed that the law was preserving a sacred practice so understanding the different desires of others was not up for deliberation.

The last assumption in Rubin’s essay is the graphic representation of sex (Rubin, 1984). Media and society both in the past and present times have represented sex in various ways. Society had placed a great emphasis on sex for procreative purposes and love making for heterosexual couples joined in matrimony. However, the media represented sex in a graphic and different way. Media achieved this by displaying sex as a practice that can be used by anyone wanting to act on their desires in various forms. Society viewed the medias interpretation of sex as vulgar and aiming to influence its “abnormal” sexual practices on others. This caused the creation of numerous laws that prohibited or placed restraints on the graphic representation of sex and pornography. Many citizens began to imply as method to combat pornography that these graphic images and practices of sex could lead to the crime of rape (Rubin, 1984). This assumption again limited its political discussion. This graphic representation of sex goes against societies views on what it should be used for so why should they discuss it?

The three assumptions of sexuality in Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality by Gayle S. Rubin are sex is corruption for the youth, any sexual orientation or alternative sexual practice that is not deemed “natural” is wrong, and the graphic representation of sex. These assumptions have resulted in the limited discussion of sex in a political setting. The assumptions formulate a certain ideology about sex that is believed to be common knowledge that should and must be followed by everyone. In my opinion, these beliefs about sex have caused the topic to be viewed as a fragile practice that needs to be heavily supervised by the government to prohibit the possible corruption of it. These notions are believed to be correct and factual which significantly limits the political discussion of it because the government believes it is right and why should they listen to others who possess the “wrong” beliefs about it. Unfortunately, the heavy political involvement in sexuality has led to injustice. The only way this injustice can be corrected is if the Western cultures begin to view sexuality as a personal freedom.

Rubin, G. S. (1984). Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of

Sexuality. 143-178.

Exploitation is a form of manipulation, where a person or group is used to carry out certain tasks that benefit another; while the person or group is not properly compensated for their work. Throughout history, there have been various instances of exploitation such as slavery, child labor, unfair wages, etc. Caliban and the Witch by Silvia Frederici examines the mistreatment of women between the 14th and 19th centuries. In my essay I will discuss the exploitation of women as a method to increase the accumulation of wealth in a capitalist political society. My essay consists findings from Caliban and the Witch.

Beginning in the 14th century, women were slowly being pushed out of the workforce. Those who were a part of the workforce, were paid less than men and received extremely low wages for their work. The refusal of work towards women resulted in widespread poverty. Women did not possess the monetary funds to support themselves and their families; causing the deaths of many children due to starvation. Some women did reproductive labor in their home. However, the state did not view this as work, but as a natural responsibility; as a result, their labor was devalued (Federici, 2004). During this time, a large amount of women became prostitutes as a way to support their families. The exclusion of women from the workforce was demoralizing, because they were forced to do drastic deeds in order to survive and they were viewed as not worthy of work. The reproductive labor that women did at home was unacknowledged. However, placing women in the household was the foundation needed for the process of economic growth to begin.

During the 16th and 17th centuries Europe was experiencing a critical population crisis because of disease that claimed the lives of many. The region’s population was decreasing drastically which caused major concern within the government. During this time period the number of people a country had was associated with wealth; less citizens meant less wealth and more citizens meant more prosperity (Federici, 2004). This assumption led to the European government making a decision to increase their involvement in the lives of their female citizens. Great importance was placed on women and their reproductive capacities because their children symbolized a growth in the workforce and in the economy. Women lost control of their body and their ability to choose whether or not they wanted children. Contraception and abortion were heavily frowned upon and any women suspected of attempting to terminate or prevent a pregnancy were punished severely; sometimes resulting in death (Federici, 2004). Women were turned into child making factories for the sole purpose of accumulating wealth for the economy by giving birth to new workers. The government dictated who had children and when it was convenient for women to have them; thus turning their wombs into property (Federici, 2004).

Sexual division was prevalent in the 19th century. During this time, a women’s role was to be a full time housewife caring not only for her children, but most importantly for her husband. At home, women did reproductive labor and would frequently aid their husbands with their work. Women were not paid for assisting their husband or at home labor. This was another form of exploitation. These women were helping their husbands to produce, which in turn helped the economy; yet they were not paid or acknowledged for their work. Many women relied heavily on the income of their husbands because they themselves could not work; and whatever work they did at home had no importance to society. Through this, the government was able to further influence women by forcing them to be under the control of their husbands (Federici, 2004). Around this time, women who were single were frowned upon and their image was destroyed. Those unmarried were labeled as non-conformist. A woman working at home was a woman helping her husband to produce for the economy and her sacrifices were overlooked but her work was beneficial to the state.

Exploitation is a form of manipulation, where a person or group is used to carry out certain tasks that benefit another; while the person or group is not properly compensated for their work. Between the 14th and 19th centuries, women faced severe exploitation by the government with the intention of boosting the economy. In the 14th century women were losing their jobs and faced exclusion from the workforce; resulting in many participating in reproductive labor at home which helped the economy. During the 15th and 16 centuries the government used female reproductive capabilities as a method to increase the population in order to gain more workers which would in turn help with economic productivity. In the 19th century the work that women did as full time housewives greatly helped the economy, but was not rewarded. Women were being exploited; their bodies were controlled by the government. They were denied the right to work, which led to an increase in prostitution and poverty. Whatever work they did do was overlooked. An economy thrived at the expense of women’s rights, integrity, and their lives.

Federici, S. (2004). Caliban and the Witch. 61-133.

Intersexuality is a condition where an individual is born with both male and female features such as reproductive organs or indistinguishable genitals. Throughout the course of history and presently many children have been diagnosed as being intersexed. As society and technology have evolved our understanding of intersexuality has been broadened. Many physicians, patients, and parents of intersexed children similarly understand what intersexuality is and how an individual can develop this condition. Both understand intersexuality as a fetus that goes through development just like any other fetus but with one discrepancy. A fetus can begin to go through intersexuality when it’s reproductive systems do not mature properly or irregularly. In some cases, a child is born with genitalia that resembles neither male of female genitals and in other cases a child can develop both male and female reproductive organs.

As the medical field has evolved there have been many developments in the surgical techniques and in the field of endocrinology. Much of the knowledge on how to deal with intersexuality cases both surgically and psychologically was given to the field by John Money, J.G. Hampson, and J.L. Hampson (Kessler, 1990). Physicians are more knowledgeable on what intersexuality is and how to assist children born with this condition. Presently intersexuality is corrected by physicians through surgery where they determine the sex of the child and perform alterations to make their reproductive organs match their determined sex. Many tests like cytologic screening, chromosomal analysis, assessing serum electrolytes, the evaluation of hormones, steroids, and gonadotropin, and radiographic genitography are used to help physicians better identify which gender an intersexed child is (Kessler, 1990). The medical advancements have granted doctors the ability to construct immature genitalia into fully developed male or female genitalia that greatly resembles natural ones.

The medical field has gone through many advancements in surgical techniques, technology, and in the field of endocrinology. Two factors that have greatly influenced its growth are society itself and the theories of John Money, J.G. Hampson, and J.L. Hampson (Kessler, 1990). It is believed by many that there are only two genders in the world; male or female. This belief has influenced both physicians and parents to deal with intersexed children with haste. Both society and the theorists have put a great pressure on these people to determine a child’s sex and immediately operate. Following surgery, parents are to begin raising the child with social interactions that reinforce their gender upon them. It is believed by many that the sooner you resolve the “issue” of intersexuality, the sooner a child can understand what gender they are. They will learn how people who are that gender are to conduct themselves and act accordingly. These influences have resulted in people interpreting intersexuality as abnormal and as a condition that needs to be corrected. Most importantly, society has impacted physicians, leading them to impose their assumptions regarding gender on their patients.

Kessler, S. J. (1990). The Medical Construction of Gender: Case management of Intersexed         Infants. The University of Chicago Press, 3-26.