fFleta has 11 post(s)

In Roderick Ferguson’s, Aberrations in Black, there is a focus on relationships between property, capital, and prostitution. Each of these words have their own definition but Ferguson is able to mend them together so that they relate and connect with each other. Property can be a commodity, such as land, or, in harsher terms, having a person as property, such as a slave. Ferguson explains that, by working, individuals become property to the companies or institutions they work for. They also become property to capital, which is the outcome of working. In order to earn capital, individuals become property. Evidently, an example of this is prostitution, which is what happens when people sell themselves in exchange for capital. It is a survival tactic that individuals have been practicing for years. Within this piece, Ferguson discusses the “queer of color” analysis, which relates to this idea of property, capital, and prostitution. This queer of color idea relates to individuals who are judged in society for having different identities, such as drag queens and prostitutes. This concept is important as it shows the various ways in which queers and prostitution go up against this accepted idea of heteronormativity. It threatens the system that everybody is so accustomed to. Homosexuality is seen as an evil that has the potential to tear down society, as well as the heterosexual man. The benefits of capital and the means of obtaining it are most easily attainable for heterosexual males than anyone else. The individuals with the different identities due to sexuality are pushed to the side and are not given the same opportunities. It is a system that is so set in its ways. It functions properly and benefits who it is meant to benefit, which is why it is a threat if queers gain wealth through their own methods, such as prostitution. It takes away from the patriarchal society and does not allow it to remain as it is.

In Lila-Abu Lughod’s essay, “Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving?”, Lughod discusses this idea that Muslim women need to be ‘saved’. Without truly understanding the culture of Afghanistan women, individuals simply target them with biased, stereotypical characteristics. A focus on their standpoints in society, whether it may be political, social, or economic, are not necessarily supported but are judged by many, making it a relevant topic for discussion. Lughod argues the misconception of these women and the fact that the government is to blame, as they are denied of their citizenship rights. The work aims to discuss the issues of Muslim women, such as being forced to wear a veil, or the burqa, which covers the whole body and face. The burqa became views as a ‘liberating invention’, as the women who wore them were given the ability to leave segregated living conditions. The wearing of the burqa, however, carries with it this idea of sanctity and respectability. In the eyes of others, especially in Western thought, the idea of veiling is seen as a ‘lack of agency’ in women. However, it is just the opposite, as veiling is a voluntary act. Women can choose if they wish to wear it and they can also choose who they wish to wear it in front of.

Two points that Lughod highlights in this piece is that, first of all, it is important to stop categorizing veiling as an example of a woman’s “unfreedom”. Each individual is raised in a different social and historical background that shapes their values and understanding of the world around them. Secondly, it is imperative to not limit a Muslim woman’s ability, attitude, or situation down to a single article of clothing. It is important to steer away from this Western ideal on what is deemed as wrong or right. Instead, we must focus on serious issues and actual feminist concerns that go deeper than the simple concept of veiling.

In “Between Love and Money: Sex, Tourism, and Citizenship in Cuba and the Dominican Republic” Amelia Cabezas discusses the concepts and deeper roots that have to do with the act of sex. In this case, she connects it to third world countries. She discusses the four S’s – sun, sand, sea, and sex. These four S’s are meant to create economic growth, as they attract international tourism. Soon enough, many studies have found that a large number of hosts and guests were being involved in sexual relationships, which explains the definition of the term sex tourism. Cabezas focuses on the benefits that sex brought about for individuals, especially women who look for advantages. These countries suffer from a lack of economic growth and political issues and, with time, sex labor became an accepted aspect of daily life. The growth of sex workers grew, people arrived at these countries in order to receive this special treatment. Besides the money, women also wanted opportunities and offers from men, such as emotional growth that could lead to marriage. It was a tactic that they adapted in order to strengthen their chances of a better life; an escape from their struggles and unfair exposure to the economic and social struggles of life in countries like DR and Cuba. Evidently, there was also inequality between female and male sex workers, as women are more likely to be judged or challenged by others because of their promiscuity. Men, on the other hand, have the advantage, as they are already seen as superior in society and do not have to be concerned with the discrimination or judgment on the same level as women. Ultimately, this idea of sex tourism is more than just an activity, but rather a socially accepted behavior. It is an act that is intertwined with romance, travel, marriage, and leisure, rather than just money.

In her article, Patricia Hill Collins discusses this idea of the “outsider within” status. This term relates to the marginalization of black women, as they are discriminated against through both race and gender. Black women that worked for white families were able to see what separated the “insiders” from the “outsiders”. Despite all their hard work cleaning, cooking, and taking care of children, they were still never seen as family. They were not acknowledged for their work and were not exactly accepted with open arms, which, ultimately, labeled them as “outsiders”. However, the fact that they were able to view both sides gives them an advantage as they are able to see the truth behind the discrimination. This just proves that it was not about intelligence, or any other factor besides the color of their skin, that set them apart.

When it comes to black feminist thought, Collins discusses three key themes. According to Collins, black feminist thought consists of ideas that are created by black women and strengthens their standpoints. First, she states that it is not possible to separate the historical and material conditions that shape the lives of individuals. Basically, other individuals will not understand Black feminist thought like black women do. Second, there is an assumption that Black women have a unique perspective of their experiences and that common experiences can be shared by black women as a group. Third, being a black women consists of different perspectives, like with class, region, age, and sexual orientation. Also, it is these distinctions that are experienced differently by specifics groups of Afro-American women. Essentially, one role for Black females is to produce facts that will better portray a Black woman’s standpoint for Black women as a whole. Simply put, black feminist thought describes different common themes by using observations about Afro-American womanhood. This brings Collins to two terms, known as Self-Definition and Self-Valuation. Self-definition has to do with challenging the stereotypical ideals of Black women, such as the ‘crazy black woman’. Self-valuation, however, focuses on Black women’s self-definitions by getting rid of the stereotypical images and incorporating authentic black female ideals. The goal, essentially, is to reverse these stereotypical assumptions of black womanhood.

In Peterson and Parisi’s article, the discussion begins with a focus on how sexual difference is related to heterosexism. This leads to the question, are women human? Initially, this question is answered as men are depicted as human while women are marked as the ‘other’; not human, but merely a subcategory. Humans rights, is generally androcentric, leaving a greater focus on men. This poses the argument that human rights are actually men’s rights. This lack of balance between sexes is prevalent when it comes to heterosexism. Ultimately, men benefit at the expense of women, as they are viewed as more valuable. There is a link between the normalization of subjectivities and identities based on heterosexism. The state, ideally, works in favor of heterosexuals, as it leans towards them when it comes to divisions of authority, power, labor, and resources. Essentially, major forms of representation in society are male-centered, which does not give the female population much recognition.

Heterosexism not only excludes other forms of sexuality, but it also excludes advantages for women, as it identifies with male defined groups and condones women’s subordination to those groups. It is oppressive, as males and masculinity are seen for their male-defined interests and are considered far more important than females and femininity and their interests. Not only are woman under attack psychologically and economically by the government, but they are also affected in the household, such as domestic violence. Peterson and Parisi speak of an instance where domestic violence is present, yet the state decided not to get involved. Unfortunately, with no help from the state, women are confined to the household and to their husbands, just as they are confined to the rigid perceptions and beliefs of society. Due to the fact that heterosexism is seen as the favorable sexuality, homosexuality is not seen as natural. This affects gay men and women, as their rights are compromised and not valued, being that they are not seen as normal. Ultimately, if the government deems it as something unacceptable, then that is how it is depicted. This idea of normality comes to light, but is confined to one form, leaving no room for anything out of the norm. This inequality affects gay and straight individuals, as well as women. With heterosexual men having the upperhand, it is evident where the focus falls and it is obvious that there is a gender bias in our society.

Heterosexuality has been embedded into the minds of individuals for as long as we can remember. It is depicted as the ideal and ‘correct’ form of sexuality, which ultimately, affects individuals who identify themselves as homosexual. Throughout the course of history, homosexuality has risen and become more prominent in society, yet the systematic beliefs of what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ still seem to be in constant battle with anything that opposes the concept of heterosexuality. According to Rich, heterosexuality is forced upon individuals, and is specifically targeted towards women.

The initial, and most obvious, instance in which heterosexuality is imposed on women is through the workplace. Since the very beginning of industrialization, it is no surprise that women have been treated unfairly, as they are paid less and seen as less valuable. Ultimately, this creates the idea that a woman needs a man in order to support themselves. Another case is sexual harassment in the workplace. Rich argues that not only are women directed into lower paying jobs, such as nurses, waitresses, or child care workers, but they are sexualized, as ‘sexualization of the woman’ is part of the job. Women who resisted sexual remarks or insinuations in the workplace were automatically deemed as lesbian. Ultimately, women were shaped by two major aspects; men’s control over their sexuality and economic control over the lives of employees.

Lesbian existence is depicted as an attack on a male’s ‘right of access’ to a woman. The act of being a lesbian rejects the compulsory way of life, which many individuals have grown comfortable with. Lesbian individuals are deprived of their own placement in society, as they are simply thrown in as the female versions of male homosexuality. However, by lumping them into the same category as male homosexuality basically removes the focus on females, yet again. Essentially, they cannot be categorized the same way, as their constant inferiority to men leaves them lower on the ladder in comparison to male homosexuality. Another issue is that it is said that women turn to women in spite of men. This idea not only takes away from the lesbian existence but also takes away from women in general, as it makes a mockery out of their choices. Ultimately, heterosexuality is depicted so often in our society as the proper way to be that it leaves no room for anything that is out of this norm. Whether it may be the workplace or the media or the imposition of men, heterosexuality is clearly institutionalized. Not only do individuals believe this and voice this to others, but our society is structured around it as well. Heterosexual couples and ideals are protected and enforced in society so that this rigid mindset remains.

The concept of sexuality in the United States is one that is controversial and difficult to understand. According to Rubin, the topic of sexuality consists of its own internal politics and forms of oppression. She believes that sex is always political, as it is a product of human activity and is in conflict with political influence. Rubin begins her argument by discussing the social movements occurring in England and the US during the nineteenth century that fought to condone chastity, eradicate prostitution, and prevent masturbation, especially in the young. Beginning at an early stage, the initial intent was to avoid the exploitation and free practice of sexuality. Ultimately, it was seen as something that was limited solely to reproduction, but was excused by marriage, love, and sometimes, a long-term relationship. Rubin continues to discuss how masturbation was considered unhealthy and would hinder the health and maturation of a child. It was deemed that an early interest in sex and sexual excitement would not allow for proper growth. In an attempt to protect the young, parents would tie their children down at night to prevent them from touching themselves. Eventually, this idea that sex is generally harmful to the young has slowly become embedded into people’s minds, affecting social and legal structures and keeping minors separated from sexual understanding and experience.

With time, sex laws began to move into full effect, as the 1950s shed new light on homosexuality. Evidently, this concept did not sit well with societal norms, as it led to the creation and fear of the title “sex offender” and the term “homosexual menace”. Initially, the term sex offender pertained to rapists and child molesters, yet with time, it linked entirely to homosexuality. Soon enough, the war on homosexuals began, where witch hunts and purges ran ramped. Police force became prominent as bars were raided and streets were swept, in a violent attempt to run out the gay community. Arrests became more and more frequent, as police arrested over 400 people in parks, streets, and other forms of local gay nightlife. This resulted in “queer bashing”, which discriminated against homosexuals in violent and forceful ways. The forceful negativity is only the tip of the iceberg on the concept of sexuality. Situations that are anything out of the societal norm result in dangerous backlash, as it stirs up the learned ideals of society that individuals have become used to. Rubin makes this clear in many instances, such as the development of laws against these ‘abnormal’ situations. One in particular is the Family Protection Act, which essentially, aims to attack feminism, homosexuals, non-traditional families, and the sexual privacy of teens. This act is not expected to be passed but the fact that an act such as this one has made its way into the minds of others is quite unsettling. Ultimately, the acceptance of differing forms of sexuality is difficult in a society that has already developed its pre-meditated perspective on what is right and what is wrong. Rubin sheds light on these concerns in this piece, as she believes that without any dramatic change anytime soon, we should be expecting much more of the same.

In this work, Frederici speaks about the presence of Capitalism in Medieval Europe. Slowly, the economic system is being overrun by patriarchy, as a woman’s presence in society is becoming more and more excluded. As Capitalism took over, forcing Feudalism out, the degradation of women soon began as their placement in society changed greatly. Frederici discusses the sudden changes in women’s labor, as they are given unfair wages and unsafe working conditions. Women were continuously seen as housewives and were not given the same opportunities as men when it came to work. By keeping women limited in this sense, they were able to have the advantage by practically forcing women to rely on their husbands for support. Another way of keeping women limited was by pressing societal roles onto them. Soon enough, land and the purchase of it became increasingly popular. However, women were constantly confined to the typical domestic role, which did not allow them to branch out and participate in the buying and selling of land. They did not have enough resources or money to do so, thus leaving them under the control of their husbands.

Frederici continues to discuss the presence of sexual violence at the time as well. Ultimately, it was just another way of establishing capitalism at the time. As the strengthening of the wealthy, male population grew, the female population became more and more oppressed. Naturally, women had to remain inferior to men in order for Capitalism to rise with the male population. Soon enough, prostitution and violence against women became a typical occurrence. It is these situations that create boundaries for women and limit them from breaking free from the clutches of the wealthy white male. Besides the sexualization of women, there was also the accusation of women being witches. Women were considered to be witches if they could not reproduce, and in order to blame someone for this, the male population started the witch hunt. They believed it was their fault that there was a lack of reproduction. Women were unable to voice their opinion, be economically involved, and were seen as nothing more than housewives and child bearers. If they were anything else, they were discriminated against and were stripped of any humanness. Frederici clearly wanted to emphasize the unfair treatment of women during medieval Europe, as it was led by a sudden urge to grow economically that could not be done without tearing down women and keeping them under the thumb of the wealthy white male.

The focal point of Kessler’s reading is to discuss the obvious social construct that this society condones when it comes to gender. This lens has influenced doctors to make decisions, or create solutions, when it comes to intersexuality. A child that is deemed intersex is born with undefined genitals, which then results in the decision over if the child should identify as male or female. The issue with intersexuality is the fact that it is seen as a deformity that needs to be dealt with. In order for the child to be raised properly, a sex must be assigned, and it is up to the doctors to do so. However, this decision is not quite simple, as it requires a deeper look into other aspects that take part.

A big contribution to this decision are cultural and environmental factors, which ultimately shape an individual as they come into themselves and identify with their sex. In her essay, Kessler includes that both views are important when assigning a sex. The growth of a child is greatly linked to social norms. It is our environment that forces us to establish ourselves in society and sex is one of the main establishments that one must be aware of in oneself. An example of how they make these decisions is by taking a look at the links between society and the individual. Due to the fact that masculinity is related to penis size, a child would be assigned a female rather than a male if their penis was below the average size. Essentially, the societal lens is what makes the decision after all. These constructs are so heavily pressed on individuals in society that if a sex is not decided for the child then he/she will be deemed underdeveloped and out of place. Another adjustment to this issue is performing surgery so that the child may possess more of a female sex organ or more of a male sex organ, depending on which is more prominent initially. It is an important decision, however, because it will guide them to understand who to identify as in the future. Also, it tells the parents what steps they must take in order to raise their child so that they are established in society. Another important aspect that Kessler stresses is the relationship between the parents and doctors. The healthier the connection between them two, the healthier it will be between the parents and their child. This connection leads to the proper growth and establishment of the child in society as he/she grows. The focus may be on the biology of an individual but the true solution is found elsewhere; upon taming and adjusting to societal norms that can hinder the growth of an individual if decisions are made without every possible factor in mind.

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a focus on the anatomy of women in comparison to white men had risen to the surface. Early in the passage, Schiebinger makes it clear that it is not her intention to simply explain physical difference between men and women but to closely inspect the social and political concerns that were present in this time due to sex differences. The main focus of the piece is to bring to light the roles of men and women at the time in order to define and preserve the social hierarchy among the two. The method used for analyzing the two was a scientific, logical approach. Simply based on anatomy, philosophers and scientists determined the capability of a woman in comparison to a man, as well as their purpose in the world. An example of this is the most prominent observation in the text; that a woman’s purpose in life is motherhood, due to the fact that women have a wider pelvis than men, thus deeming them destined for childbirth. Although we can’t deny the fact that women can indeed bear children, it does not mean that it is their sole purpose in life. It is studies such as these that insinuate that women are inferior to men. Also, the fact that it is deemed as scientific evidence leads one to believe that it is something that cannot be argued with. However, for many others it was not the case. Some also claimed that there is no difference in men and women besides their exterior structure and their sex organs. This claimed that, essentially, every other aspect of a woman was equal to a man. Yet, as the years progressed, anatomists began to claim that the differences between the body of a man and a woman were so dramatic that a woman’s growth had been stifled at a much earlier stage. Due to the fact that a woman’s head was much larger than her body, similar to children, it signaled incomplete growth. Based on their studies, not only is a woman’s structure different, it is also underdeveloped. Observations such as these only further create a role for women that does not allow them to be equal, or even remotely close, to the power of a white man.

Another trend that was widely discussed at the time was the opposition of nurture vs nature. The ‘nurture’ standpoint believed that social and educational change could lead to a path of equality between sexes. Whereas the nature standpoint claimed that whatever it is, is right. An example of the ‘nature’ standpoint is the idea that a boy will always have power of a girl in the sense that he is stronger, based on his physique; that no matter what type of nourishment a girl receives it will never make her equivalent to a boy, simply because she is not built that way. The reading then proceeds to discuss the many reasons that a woman is incapable of working scientifically due to the fact that their physical weakness leads to intellectual weakness. I believe that Schiebinger sheds light on all these various studies and observations from various philosophers and anatomists in order to prove that the main focus is simply to make women feel inferior to men. Each individual carried their own study that, ultimately, fed into the same main idea. At the time, there was no better individual than the white man and in order to keep this belief intact there had to be a comparison to the leading competition, the white woman. It is all a process of keeping those specific roles intact and carrying out social hierarchy in society.